Relation Between Inflation Rate and Unemployment - 1776 Words

Eurozone unemployment and inflation both rise 01 March 2012 by Daniel Mason Eurozone unemployment rose to a record high in January, while inflation in the currency bloc has also continued its upward trend - a combination described by economists as unpalatable and a double whammy of bad news. The jobless rate in the 17-member currency bloc was 10.7 per cent in January, up from 10.6 per cent in December, according to statistics published today by Eurostat. It means that, in January, there were 16.9 million people out of work in the eurozone. Meanwhile in the European Union as a whole, unemployment increased from 10 per cent in December to 10.1 per cent in January, leaving 24.3 million people without a job. Spain continued to†¦show more content†¦A rise in income will create increased purchasing power. Thus, the demand remains high as it reaches a point where the supply can no longer meet the demand, inflation occurs. However, at the same time, when unemployment is high, workers are unable to ask for better wages. This means that prices can fall, since businesses are not having to pay their employees better wages. Therefore, in many cases, when there is low unemployment, there is high inflation and vice versa. It has been observed that there was a stable and inverse relationship between rate of inflation and the rate of unemployment in an economy. In other words, a lower unemployment rate could be had by tolerating a higher rate of inflation. However, since the simultaneous occurrence of high inflation and high unemployment in the United States and other countries during the 1970s, there has been general agreement that this econometric relationship is unstable. Indeed, the instability has been so great that Lucas and Sargent characterized it as econometric failure on a grand scale.(1) As is known to all, widespread joblessness in Greece and Spain pushed the unemployment rate in the eurozone to the worst level since 1999. Coupled with the pitched unemployment rate, the economy has suffered from fluctuation. Take the example of the news released in recent time, which is concerned with the financial situation in Eurozone. As what we can see in the news report, during the businessShow MoreRelatedInflation And Its Effect On The International Market853 Words   |  4 PagesInflation means continuing rise in the overall price level. General inflation or a decline in purchasing power of the currency devaluation, and devaluation of the currency is relative reduction between the two economies. General inflation used to describe of the national currency, which is used to describe the added value on the international market. Unemployment means any paid work status is not obtained. In economics category, a person willing and able to get the reward for the work, but theRead MoreThe Positive Relationship Between Inflation And Inflation1067 Words   |  5 Pagesthese examples can be observed when we compare inflation and unemployment rate. To establish this comparison in a short-run period of time, it will be beneficial to use the Phillip Curve. This curve can be used as a tool to represent the positive relationship between inflation and unemployment in the short-run. In order to comprehend the positive relationship between inflation and unemployment first, we must know what inflation is, how we define unemployment, and how we can use the Phillip Curve to makeRead MoreEconomic Growth Between Emerging And Developed Economics Essay1181 Words   |  5 PagesCanada, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Emerging countries can be identifying with rapid growth rate and development but lower per capita than develope d countries, namely Brazil, Russia, India, and China, Ireland, Italy, Greece, Spain. The economic growth of countries can be measured by gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. This essay is going to find out â€Å"What are the main reasons behind different rate of economic growth in emerging and developed economics in last 15 years?† In hear I selectedRead MoreMacroeconomic Variables Of The Stock Market974 Words   |  4 Pagesstock agents find the critical importance but the government to implement macroeconomic policy; the solid finding of this relation will enable policy makers to efficiently and effectively control the economy as well as the capital market. We aim to cover some relationship between macroeconomic indicators, including consumption, interest rate unemployment rate and inflation rate, and with stock price. Stock price or return and consumption Consumption has been viewed as one of the most fundamentalRead MoreThe Relationship Between Inflation And Unemployment1662 Words   |  7 PagesThe relationship between inflation and unemployment is a topic, which has been debated by economists for decades. It is this debate that has made the opinions about it evolve. In this essay, the controversial topic will be discussed by viewing different economists’ opinions on that according to time sequencing. Inflation is an increase in price levels within an economy. Basically it means that you will have to pay more for the same goods. Unemployment is even more straightforward. It means thatRead MoreFiscal and Monetary Policy 946 Words   |  4 Pagesgovernment therefore to keep inflation low as well as keeping unemployment rate down. Philips curve gives the probability of having both a low unemployment and inflation hence providing the stakeholders in the sector in the short run a tradeoff between unemployment and inflation (Mark Asmaa, 2012). Unemployment can be kept under control by the government while at the same time allowing inflation OR to keep controlling prices and not controlling unemployment. This compromise between the two is shown as aRead MoreDeveloped Countries and Economically Developed Countries Essay examples927 Words   |  4 Pagesdone on the relationship between inflation rate and unemployment rate in developed country such as by Hogan (United State), Sackâ€℠¢l en (Sweden) and Andrei (Romania). They are done the same research with different method to get same objective. The most of the study is use a VECM method in their research. While, there is a few of the study was used a VAR method. 2.1.1 United States Related to the topic research which is relationship between inflation rate and unemployment rate, the developed countryRead MoreEconomic Policies Of Every Country Essay964 Words   |  4 Pages(increase in output (GDP) growth), price stability (inflation targeting), high employment etc. The policymakers have different tools to manage these issues, primarily by influencing the aggregate demand and supply, such as interest rates, requirements to the bank reserves, tax rates etc. Therefore, this is crucial to understand how these macroeconomic indicators are interconnected, such as for example output and unemployment, unemployment and inflation, and the mechanism of policy actions in each caseRead MoreThe Effect Of Inflation On The Economy822 Words   |  4 Pagesto represent the inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment in the short-run. In order to comprehend this inverse relationship, we must first know what inflation is, how we define unemployment, and how these two variables are connected using the Phillip Curve. If we understand the meaning of each one of these variables in the economy, it will be easier to comprehend the logic of a short-run tradeoff between unemployment and inflation. Inflation, in the economic, can be described asRead MoreMacroeconomic Policies And Regulate The Healthy Operation Of The National Economy1243 Words   |  5 Pagesgrowth and balance of international payments. In addition, inflation, unemployment and economic growth are the big macroeconomic issues of our time. In this essay we focus on inflation and unemployment. Unemployment occurs when a person who is actively searching for employment is unable to find work. Unemployment is often used as a measure of the health of the economy. The most frequently cited measure of unemployment is the unemployment rate. This is the number of unemployed persons divided by the

Human Cloning Essay - 1608 Words

Imagine a future where humans are manufactured, a future where humans are created by science, a future where humans are the new lab specimen. Human cloning is like opening Pandoras Box, unleashing a torrent of potential evils but at the same time bringing a small seed of hope. No matter how many potential medical and scientific benefits could be made possible by human cloning, it is unethical to clone humans. Before the ethics of human cloning can be discussed, the mechanics of cloning must be understood first. Cloning is the process of making an exact genetic copy of an organism by a method called nuclear transplantation which is a process of removing a nucleus (the center of a cell which contains all of the biological information)†¦show more content†¦Human cloning is not always copying and creating a full organism; that is reproductive cloning. Cloning just an organ or tissue is called therapeutic cloning, and is a technology that is not possible yet but scientists feel t hat it is only a matter of time (Tierney). With that technology, many patients could be cured of previously life-long conditions such as paralysis, chronic heart attacks, and leukemia. A long-term â€Å"disease† such as infertility could be cured as well by creating a clone of the female and then transplanting that clone’s eggs into the female and then the children the couple has will be their biological children! Even amputees could have limbs regenerated in a lab and reattached (Smith). These medical advances seem like a cure-all, but they are not possible at the moment because we do not know enough about the human genome to see which genes code for certain proteins which shape the function of the cell. With our current technology, we cannot direct a cell to specialize into a kidney cell to transplant into a patient needing a new kidney. Current technology doesn’t allow for the creation of â€Å"spare parts† but it is possible to create fully functional humans (after many attempts), and then the human that was â€Å"created† could then be grown and disemboweled for â€Å"spare parts† (Dudley 30). The idea of creating a â€Å"Caliban† or a human specifically to actShow MoreRelatedThe Cloning Of Human Cloning1449 Words   |  6 Pagesto live up to 1,000 years old is alive today. However, many humans have a fear that this power of creation is fashioning an earthy trinity of man, science, and technology. Many of those who believe and fear this idea are apprehensive of various upcoming technological advances. After the first successful cloning experiment of a sheep, Dolly, scientists have looked into human cloning and the benefits it would offer humanity. Cloning of humans would give parents who are infertile the possibility to haveRead MoreThe Cloning Of Human Cloning1332 Words   |  6 PagesCloning Science today is developing at warp speed. We have the potential to do many things, which include the cloning of actual humans and animals. The question no longer seems to be if we will clone humans, but when? Somewhere, sometime, a human clone will be born. This fact has exploded the world into a global debate. Will large armies of soldiers be raised to fight our wars? Or perhaps we will create a race of slaves to do our dirty work. Cloning is becoming more credible and concrete idea ratherRead MoreThe Cloning Of Human Cloning1006 Words   |  5 PagesTwins? Or is it clones? It has been known that identical twins are natural clones. The question is, what is cloning? Cloning is the process of making a genetically identical organism through the use of a DNA sample. There are three different types of artificial cloning: gene cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. Dolly, the sheep, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell. There is a spe cific procedure that has to be followed for a clone to be madeRead MoreThe Cloning Of Human Cloning1774 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction- Cloning is defined as two organisms having identical genetic DNA and has been around since the early 1800s. When people think of the word ‘cloning’ many think of Dolly the sheep; however, the first organism to ever be cloned was a sea urchin in 1885. When scientists created Dolly, they took a cell from the mammary gland from an adult Finn Dorset sheep and an egg cell from a Scottish blackhead sheep. Dolly’s white face was the first sign that she was genetically modified because if sheRead MoreCloning And Its Implications On Human Cloning1497 Words   |  6 PagesCloning and Its Sociobiological Implications Picture this: walking down a street and seeing someone who looks exactly like you. They do the same things as you, act the same way you do, and are exactly alike in several ways. But have people ever considered the consequences of human cloning if it becomes permitted? Human cloning might seem like something out of a science-fiction novel, but it may someday be possible with advances in science and technology. This will result in the creation of severalRead MoreThe Human Of Human Cloning2049 Words   |  9 PagesHuman Cloning Nowadays, in the twenty-first century, advances in medical sciences are being more and more common. As people become sicker, scientist try to find the way to solve that prob-lem. There are many series of medicaments, surgeries, and machines that have been develop to satisfy the necessities of modern society. However, all these techniques and options are not enough to cure many diseases or other types of problems such as amputations, transplants, and so on. As a result, scientists tryRead MoreThe Prospect Of Human Cloning1295 Words   |  6 Pages The prospect of human cloning was introduced in February 1997 when an embryologist was able to produce a lamb through the process of cloning. Once the lamb was cloned, the question of whether research for human cloning came into being. Society and researchers have feuded over whether human cloning should be banned or allowed for research and reproduction purposes. Each side has reasonable ideologies to continue their stance towards the oppo sing argument. Pro- cloners believe that the research developedRead MoreThe Ethics Of Human Cloning918 Words   |  4 Pages and human cloning. The idea of human cloning is most interesting because it is most mysterious and very complex. The topic of human cloning inclusively brings up issues also raised in the mentioned technologies. Human cloning is of two types: therapeutic and reproductive. Therapeutic cloning aims to produce tissues or organs from cells of a cloned embryo, whereas reproductive cloning aims to further develop the cloned embryo into a human being (Glannon 89). Motivations for human cloning are therapeuticRead MoreThe Problem Of Human Cloning1034 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout this paper, I will be talking about the topic of human cloning. However, there are many who have concluded to different definitions. To clarify, and use a specific definition, the American Medical Association defines the method of cloning as the production of genetically identical organisms. In summary, the process of cloning is producing a child, with completely identical genes, or parent. It is important to realize that cloning does not necessarily produce an exact replica of the individualRead MoreHuman Cloning Is Justified?1295 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Paper: Human Cloning is Justified Imagine a world where disease was non-existent, long term injuries could be healed in half the time, a world where our life spans could be greatened to an extent never seen before by man. This could be achieved with the cloning of humans, artificial cloning is the next evolutionary step for mankind.Although many would claim human cloning is unethical and dangerous, there are procedures at hand currently that are far from that. The act of human cloning allows for

Demand and Supply of Labor in Australia-myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theDemand and Supply of Labor in Australia. Answer: Introduction Labor is an important resource in the production of goods or services in an economy (Rouse, 2011). It is therefore essential for the policy makers to ensure that there is sufficient supply of labor. The Australian economy has been challenged with the issue of bringing its unemployment level to manageable level since it is very high (Valenzuela, 2013). This means that the demand for labor in Australia exceeds its supply. Demand for labor is given by the workers who are looking for both full time and part time employment; the number of unemployed persons in Australia is high. Despite the fact that the economy is experiencing growth in the current years, this has not been reflected on the labor market; businesses are not expanding and thus are not demanding additional labor (McGrath, 2014). In this paper, some of the factors that are responsible for increasing the labor demand will be identified and also some factors that are discouraging supply. In the article Unsustainable labor chall enges leave Australia's vegetable supplies to rot obtained from the Sydney Morning Herald written by Anna Patty in 2017, the writer is showing us that wage is one of the factors that discourages supply of labor. This report will thus be important to the unemployed people to understand the reasons for the persistence of unemployment. It will also help the employers in making wise employment decisions as it will acquire knowledge on how to improve the workers productivity. The government will also be able to make policies towards addressing some of the problems that will be identified to accelerate the unemployment problem. Economic Analysis The article notes that labor is an important resource for promoting production. In this article, it is noted of the many farmers that have experienced great losses owing to the insufficiency of laborers. The losses have been incurred because the workers who are supplied in these farms are lower than the labor demand. The sustainability of the agriculture industry is at risk because they will not be able to produce more as they will be afraid that they wont be able to get enough laborers to pick, package and get the fruits to the market. The productivity is also undermined because the businesses cannot expand as additional workers may be required for the same. One of the major solution introduced to help solve the challenge of low labor supply is that of facilitating the Working Holiday Maker (Martin, 2017). These young people from countries neighboring Australia are allowed to offer their low skilled labor in an industry like the horticultural industry (Moir, 2017). The reliance of this Working Holiday Maker is becoming a major challenge as some of the farmers are unable to recruit the low-skilled workers and end up leaving their fruits unpicked. The duration period for such visas is 88 days and these workers are not willing to be committed to continue working after these days are over. The article noted that these workers are not willing to extend their visas as it leads to exploitation. This industry is an important contributor to the Australian GDP, insurance on food security and the earning of foreign exchange from the exportation of these products (Patty, 2017). The most important factor for inadequacy of laborers in this industry is payment of low wages and difficult working conditions. The Australians thus claims that this is a low status job that they cannot engage in. they also notes that there is no job security from involvement in such a job. The article also noted that even the Working Holiday Makers are not enough; the reason given was that these workers are limited to flow from certain countries and restrictions on others. It is proposed by the horticultural farmers that the government should lower such restrictions and allow more laborers to from many countries to give a sufficient supply. The policies by the government are also discouraging the flow; the government has increased tax on these workers; farmers argue that the tax should be lowered so as to attract more workers. Fig: Underutilization of labor in Australia Source: Somasundaram: Business Insider Australia (2017) Fig: Australian Unemployment Rate Source: Somasundaram: Business Insider Australia (2017) According to Jacobs (2017), underutilization of labor is experienced in the Australian labor market in addition to the high unemployment rate as shown in the two graphs above respectively. Recommendation Unemployment problem has been a major challenge for this economy. There are many workers without jobs in Australia, thus, the idea of promoting the flow of Working Holiday Makers is not a good idea. The government should address the problem facing the horticultural industry and improve their working conditions; regulation of this industry would help in addressing these problem. The increment in tax for this workers should be raised since the importation of labor add to the labor force and this explains the high unemployment rate. The government should also ensure that wages offered in this industry are fair so as to stimulate the Australians to work in this industry. This could be achieved by lowering the corporate tax for the horticultural farmers to lower their production costs and thus facilitate a payment of higher wages. The personal tax on Australians working in the industry should also be lowered. Discouragement of the Working Holiday Makers will also create a shortage of supp ly and thus the horticultural farms will accept the Australian workers at a higher wage. Conclusion Australian economys unemployment rate is high and thus the policy makers are expected to find a solution. The flow of workers from other countries to Australia is contributing to an excess supply of labor. These workers are in most cases underpaid so as to improve the profit level for the firms. The ability to import workers who can work at lower wages is at a disadvantage to the economy as it discourages the domestic workers from these industries and contributes to the rising unemployment rate. It is unfair to employ an alien whereas there are unemployed domestic workers. Further research should be carried out as the factors discouraging labor supply and demand are many. References Jacobs, S. (2017). The RBA minutes show it's thinking differently about the labor market. Business Insider Australia. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.businessinsider.com.au/the-rba-minutes-show-its-thinking-differently-about-the-labour-market-2017-5. McGrath, P. (2014). Labor shortage predicted to hamper economy. ABC News. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-08-04/labour-shortage-predicted-to-hamper-australian-economy/5647196. Moir, A. (2017). Don't expect backpackers to do backbreaking work without fair wages. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.smh.com.au/comment/smh-letters/dont-expect-backpackers-to-do-backbreaking-work-without-fair-wages-20170514-gw4tos.html. Martin, P. (2017). Citizenship rules make no sense since most of us come from somewhere else. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.smh.com.au/comment/citizenship-rules-make-no-sense-since-most-of-us-come-from-somewhere-else-20170725-gxir3d.html. Patty, A. (2017). Unsustainable labor challenges leave Australia's vegetable supplies to rot. Smh.com.au. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.smh.com.au/business/workplace-relations/unsustainable-labour-challenges-leave-australias-vegetable-supplies-to-rot-20170512-gw3bjt.html. Rouse. (2011). The Australian Economy: The labor market. Mrrouse.com. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://mrrouse.com/2011/05/24/labourmarket/. Somasundaram, N. (2017). It's tough times ahead for Australia's labor market. Business Insider Australia. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.businessinsider.com.au/its-tough-times-ahead-for-australias-labour-market-2017-5. Valenzuela, R. (2013). Wages down to supply and demand. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 29 August 2017, from https://www.smh.com.au/national/education/wages-down-to-supply-and-demand-20131004-2uyno.html.

The Scream

The Scream- analysis of painting Essay The drastic use of color has been used to depict the mood of the subject, with greens and intense reds contributing to a sense of chaos and disorder, which helps to reinforce the expression of the figure The lone emaciated figure stands on a bridge clutching his ears, his eyes and mouth open in a wide scream of fear, anguish and confusion. The green hue of the characters face and his grey clothing is symbolic of sickness and death in regards to his psychotic mental State. The red sky creates a sense Of alarm, and highlights the intensity Of the characters experience. Munch employs wavy brushstrokes to emphasis the situation that the character is feeling. Bold, curved strokes in the sky and river, make the viewer experience a sense of nausea. It gives the impression that the character is experiencing emotional agitation, and that his perception of the world may not be a true one. Contrast between the bright colors of the background and the dull, dark colors of the character create a sense of detachment. We will write a custom essay on The Scream- analysis of painting specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We are able to see that although he is standing amidst a normal environment, he feels disconnected from reality. The figure is juxtaposed with the people on the bridge blurry and vague- giving a sense of segregation and isolation. The character feels alienated from those around him and from the real world. Munch uses a shallow pictorial space, and has utilized frontal figures, These poses produce the most convincing images of psychological conditions, adding to the paintings monumental and static quality. The composition, colors and dramatic use Of perspective, the undulating curves of the landscape and hollow figure personify alienation and anxiety. Munch described the event, Which took place on a trip to Gabardines in his diaries: l stood there trembling with fright and felt a loud, unending scream piercing nature. It reflects upon human emotions, and how our relationships With Others, and with our environment can affect us. The visual also deals with the human need to be acknowledged, and need for a sense Of belonging.

Free Essays on Robber Barons And Good Capitalists

James Jay Gould was born at Roxbury, N.Y., the son of John Burr and Mary (Moore) Gould, who owned a poor hill farm. On his father's side he was descended from Nathan Gold, of Bury St. Edmunds, England, who moved to Milford, Connecticut, in 1647 and some three years later settled in Fairfield, Conn. On his mother's side he was of Scottish descent. By determined effort, working for a blacksmith and later as clerk in a country store, he obtained some education in an academy and learned the basics of surveying. With this equipment he showed an abundant knack in money-making. Between his eighteenth and twenty-first years he helped prepare maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware counties in New York, Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, and Oakland County in Michigan, and in 1856 he published a volume of local history, History of Delaware County, and Border Wars of New York. At twenty-one, an undersized, keen-witted, unscrupulous young man, he had saved $ 5,000. With Zadock Pratt, a New York poli tician, he opened a large tannery in northern Pennsylvania, and shortly prevailed upon a New york leather merchant, C.M.Leupp, to assist him in obtaining full control of it. His business relations with both men were sharp to the point of deviance, and his enemies always declared that his speculations were partly responsible for Leupp's suicide in 1857. Abandoning the tannery, after a brief career in 1859-60 as leather merchant at 39 Spruce St.,New York, he began speculating in small railways. A profitable deal in bonds of the Rutland & Washington was followed by his managership of the Rensselaer & Saratoga and investments in other lines. Gould's operations first became spectacular when in October 1867 he and James Fisk joined the directory board of the Erie Railroad, of which Daniel Drew was treasurer and controlling agent. In the titanic and scandalous battle with Cornelius Vanderbilt, which followed, Gould supplied the brilliant imagination wh... Free Essays on Robber Barons And Good Capitalists Free Essays on Robber Barons And Good Capitalists James Jay Gould was born at Roxbury, N.Y., the son of John Burr and Mary (Moore) Gould, who owned a poor hill farm. On his father's side he was descended from Nathan Gold, of Bury St. Edmunds, England, who moved to Milford, Connecticut, in 1647 and some three years later settled in Fairfield, Conn. On his mother's side he was of Scottish descent. By determined effort, working for a blacksmith and later as clerk in a country store, he obtained some education in an academy and learned the basics of surveying. With this equipment he showed an abundant knack in money-making. Between his eighteenth and twenty-first years he helped prepare maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware counties in New York, Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, and Oakland County in Michigan, and in 1856 he published a volume of local history, History of Delaware County, and Border Wars of New York. At twenty-one, an undersized, keen-witted, unscrupulous young man, he had saved $ 5,000. With Zadock Pratt, a New York poli tician, he opened a large tannery in northern Pennsylvania, and shortly prevailed upon a New york leather merchant, C.M.Leupp, to assist him in obtaining full control of it. His business relations with both men were sharp to the point of deviance, and his enemies always declared that his speculations were partly responsible for Leupp's suicide in 1857. Abandoning the tannery, after a brief career in 1859-60 as leather merchant at 39 Spruce St.,New York, he began speculating in small railways. A profitable deal in bonds of the Rutland & Washington was followed by his managership of the Rensselaer & Saratoga and investments in other lines. Gould's operations first became spectacular when in October 1867 he and James Fisk joined the directory board of the Erie Railroad, of which Daniel Drew was treasurer and controlling agent. In the titanic and scandalous battle with Cornelius Vanderbilt, which followed, Gould supplied the brilliant imagination wh...

Eadweard Muybridge, the Father of Motion Pictures

Eadweard Muybridge, the Father of Motion Pictures Eadweard Muybridge (born  Edward James Muggeridge; April 9, 1830–May 8, 1904) was an English inventor and photographer. For his pioneering work in motion-sequence still photography he became known as the Father of the Motion Picture. Muybridge developed the zoopraxiscope, an early device for projecting motion pictures. Fast Facts: Eadweard Muybridge Known For: Muybridge was a pioneering artist and inventor who produced thousands of photographic motion studies of humans and animals.Also Known As: Edward James MuggeridgeBorn: April 9, 1830 in Kingston upon Thames, EnglandDied: May 8, 1904 in Kingston upon Thames, EnglandPublished Works: Animal Locomotion, Animals in Motion, The Human Figure in MotionSpouse: Flora Shallcross Stone (m. 1872-1875)Children: Florado Muybridge Early Life Eadweard Muybridge was born in 1830 in Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, England. Born Edward James Muggeridge, he changed his name when he immigrated to the United States, where the majority of his work as a professional photographer and innovator occurred. After several years in New York City, Muybridge moved west and became a successful bookseller in San Francisco, California. Still Photography In 1860, he made plans to return to England on business and began the long stagecoach journey back to New York City. Along the way, Muybridge was badly injured  in a crash; he spent three months recovering in Fort Smith, Arkansas and did not reach England until 1861. There, he continued to receive medical treatment and eventually took up photography. By the time Muybridge returned to San Francisco in 1867, he was a highly skilled photographer educated in the latest photographic processes and printing techniques. He soon became famous for his panoramic landscape images, especially those of Yosemite Valley and San Francisco. In 1868, the U.S. government hired Muybridge to photograph the landscapes and native people of Alaska. The journey resulted in some of the photographers most stunning images. Subsequent commissions led Muybridge to photograph lighthouses along the West Coast and the standoff between the U.S. Army and the Modoc people in Oregon. Motion Photography In 1872, Muybridge began experimenting with motion photography when he was hired by railroad magnate Leland Stanford to prove that all four legs of a horse are off the ground at the same time while trotting. But because his cameras lacked a fast shutter, Muybridges initial experiments were not successful. Things came to a halt in 1874, when Muybridge found out that his wife might have been having an affair with a man named Major Harry Larkyns. Muybridge confronted the man, shot him, and was arrested and placed in jail. At trial, he pleaded insanity on the grounds that trauma from his head injury made it impossible for him to control his behavior. While the jury ultimately rejected this argument, they did acquit Muybridge, calling the killing a case of justifiable homicide. After the trial, Muybridge took some time off to travel through Mexico and Central America, where he developed publicity photographs for Stanfords Union Pacific Railroad. He resumed his experimentation with motion photography in 1877. Muybridge set up a battery of 24 cameras with special shutters he had developed and used a new, more sensitive photographic process that drastically reduced exposure time to take successive photos of a horse in motion. He mounted the images on a rotating disk and projected the images via a magic lantern onto a screen, thereby producing his first motion picture in 1878. The image sequence Sallie Gardner at a Gallop (also known as The Horse in Motion) was a major development in the history of motion pictures. After exhibiting the work in 1880 at the California School of Fine Arts, Muybridge went on to meet with Thomas Edison, an inventor who was, at the time, conducting his own experiments with motion pictures. Muybridge continued his research at the University  of  Pennsylvania, where he produced thousands of photographs of humans and animals in motion. These image sequences depicted a variety of activities, including farm work, household labor, military drills, and sports. Muybridge himself even posed for some photographs. In 1887, Muybridge published a massive collection of images in the book Animal Locomotion: An Electro-Photographic Investigation of Connective Phases of Animal Movements. This work contributed greatly to scientists understanding of animal biology and movement. The Magic Lantern While Muybridge developed a fast camera shutter and used other state-of-the-art techniques to make the first photographs that show sequences of movement, it was the zoopraxiscope- the magic  lantern, his pivotal invention in 1879- that allowed him to produce that first motion picture. A primitive device, the zoopraxiscope- which some considered the first movie projector- was a lantern that projected via rotating glass disks a series of images in successive phases of movement obtained through the use of multiple cameras. It was first called a zoogyroscope. Death After a long, productive period in the United States, Muybridge finally returned to England in 1894. He published two more books, Animals in Motion and The Human Figure in Motion. Muybridge eventually developed prostate cancer, and he died in Kingston upon Thames on May 8, 1904. Legacy After Muybridges death, all of his zoopraxiscope disks (as well as the zoopraxiscope itself) were bequeathed to the Kingston Museum in Kingston upon Thames. Of the known surviving disks, 67 are still in the Kingston collection, one is with the National Technical Museum in Prague, another is with Cinematheque Francaise, and several are in the Smithsonian Museum. Most of the disks are still in very good condition. Muybridges greatest legacy is perhaps his influence on other inventors and artists, including Thomas Edison (the inventor of the kinetoscope, an early motion-picture device), William Dickson (the inventor of the motion picture camera), Thomas Eakins (an artist who conducted his own photographic motion studies), and Harold Eugene Edgerton (an inventor who helped develop deep-sea photography). Muybridges work is the subject of the 1974 Thom Andersen documentary Eadweard Muybridge, Zoopraxographer, the 2010 BBC documentary The Weird World of Eadweard Muybridge, and the 2015 drama Eadweard. Sources Haas, Robert Bartlett.  Muybridge: Man in Motion. University of California Press, 1976.Solnit, Rebecca.  River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West. Penguin Books, 2010.

Critical Analysis of a Macroeconomics Article Essay

Critical Analysis of a Macroeconomics Article - Essay Example fiscal, monetary and international trade policy) to limit the scale of economic activity within the regenerative and waste assimilative capacities of the ecosphere. The usage of government’s rate of spending through its fiscal policy and its instrument to control money supply through its monetary policy does not provide a viable solution for the dilemma of ecological sustainability. So much so with international trade policy which only enhances the competitiveness of its domestic industries abroad which is not always desirable for the environment. The market cannot be left by itself to let its dynamics correct the inequity and ill effect of having an economy that consumes more than the environment’s regenerative capacity. Such, the article suggested ways to to avoid further ecological degeneration by modifying aggregate private sector spending through cap-and-trade system that will penalize environmentally hazardous activities. It also suggested the idea of a steady sta te economy where growth is commensurate to the environment’s capacity to replenish itself. II. Theoretical Analysis of the Article A. Fiscal Policy – Fiscal Policy is typically used by central government to pump prime the economy through its expenditures. It is used to encourage industry and create jobs during economic downturn funded by its fiscal collection through taxation. The article however acknowledges the fact that the typical function of Fiscal Policy satisfies only economic criteria and not the biophysical criteria of the environment and as such, its typical usage cannot be utilized to remedy the sustainability dilemma of resources. A variation of this Policy Instrument however can be used to limit economic activity that strains the environment. Through cap-and-trade system, it may be able to discourage and limit ecologically straining economic activities by penalizing through reformed taxation those economic activities that depletes our natural resources and pollutes the environment. B. Monetary Policy – Monetary Policy or the government’s instrument to control the supply of money circulating in the economy can neither address ecological degradation. It can encourage private enterprise spending by â€Å"loosening† its interest rates and encourage economic activity which may in fact even be harmful to the environment as it stimulates expansion, which is the biggest threat to ecological degradation. C. External Trade Policy – International Trade Policy merely addresses the international competitivenes of domestic industries to be able to compete in the global market. But with the advent of globalization, government influence in international trade is slowly diminishing that to use this instrument to put limit on the expansionist tendency of the industry to effect diversity conservation is simply not workable. III. Significance of the Analysis A. Society – Initiating a macroeconomic policy that is not ex pansionary will tremendously benefit society in the long-run. Imposing restrictions and/or limit to resource throughput within the environment’s regenerative and waste assimilative capacities will ensure ecological sustainability and availability of resources in the long-run. It will ensure the perpetual availability of resources to provide society’

Why does the Chinese Government publicly denounce Falun Gong Research Paper

Why does the Chinese Government publicly denounce Falun Gong - Research Paper Example This paper will examine the movement, how the government is cracking down on it, and why the government is cracking down on it. Explanation of the Falun Gong According to Zhao (2003), the Falun Gong movement is an outgrowth of the Chinese practice of qi, which harmonizes physical and spiritual health. What this means is that the adherents to the movement attempt to align their qi, through stretching and meditation, and this balances the energy in the body. These exercises, which balance the energy in the body are accompanied in the Falun Gong religion with moral and spiritual commitments. This is contrast to the Western vision, which keeps religion and physical exercise separate. The religious aspect of Falun Gong encompasses Taoist and Buddhist beliefs. This was the basis for the movement, but it was developed by Li Hongzhi in the late 1980s, and it went public in 1992 (Penny, 2003). This is all not unusual, in that the ancient Chinese have always believed in balancing energies and in Buddhist and Taoist beliefs. However, the Falun Gong goes a step further, according to Zhao (2003), in that this religion also has supernatural beliefs. For instance, they believe that there are supernatural ways of curing diseases, that people can levitate, and that people can be clairvoyant through their â€Å"third eye.† ... Moreover, as the society becomes increasingly isolated, Falun Gong has been helpful in that it has brought people together, as through the physical exercises performed by Falun Gong members. The physical exercise itself is also good for the Falun Gong followers, as the state-run healthcare has been collapsing since the early 1990s, which means that health care has become increasingly unaffordable to the masses. Keeping healthy is therefore a priority, and Falun Gong, with its emphasis on physical exercise and qi balancing meets this need. The movement became very popular, with millions practicing it, and Chan (2004), gives some reasons why this is. Chan (2004) regards the Falun Gong as coming under the rubric of a New Religious Movement (NRM), which is marked by obedience to a central figure who claims to have all the spiritual answers desired by the followers. The central figure is seen by the followers as being privy to sacred power. Chan (2004) thus begins his analysis with other NRMs, which have sprung up, all over the world, partially as a response to modernity’s spiritual vacuums and moral disturbances. The political and economic institutions have failed to solve the people’s problems, states Chan (2004), so the people turn to religious salvation for help. Chan (2004) then extrapolates this scenario to China. Specifically, Chan (2004) states that China was experiencing, at the time that the Falun Gong attained popularity, impressive economic growth that also led to unresolved social problems. This was because, although the country was becoming wealthier, the people were not. Unemployment was high, and the state industries were collapsing, which was causing more people to fall below the poverty line. Income inequality became more pronounced

Friedrich Froebels Ideas On the Role of Play In the Early Years Education Essay Example for Free

Friedrich Froebels Ideas On the Role of Play In the Early Years Education Essay Play is probably the very first thing that comes to our minds when we start thinking about our childhood. Certainly its hard to talk about early years without referring to play, as it is a part of childrens natural behaviour, embedded in their spontaneous day-to-day life. The fact that the play is enjoyable is generally agreed, but the value of play in school, however, has been in the centre of much debate in the past (and it seems like that debate is still going on today). The roots of contemporary understanding of the role of play in early childhood education extend clearly to Friedrich Froebel, a German educator, who organized and systematized the methods of early childhood in accordance with the idea of the spontaneous, self-sustaining nature of children (E. Evans, 1971, p. 43). Froebel believed that every child had within him all he was to be at birth, and that the proper educational environment was to encourage the child to grow and develop in the most favourable manner. Young children are to be regarded and tended essentially like plants. Like these, if they were given the right conditions, they would grow and unfold and flower, by their own law, each according to its individual capacity and destiny. (E. Lawrence, 1969, p. 195) In his study of child-nature one of the most marked characteristics, which attracted Froebels attention, was the childs inborn desire for activity, which reveals itself in play. According to Froebel, play is the freest active manifestation of the childs inner self which springs from the need of that inner living consciousness to realize itself outwardly. (H. Bowen, 1907, p. 116) Froebel made a significant contribution to early childhood education by seeing play as a process in which children bring to realization their inner nature. He recognized that children began to learn as soon as they began to interact with the world, and he reasoned that since the interaction was mostly in the form of play, the way to educate a child was through play, as a means of awakening and developing the active and presentative side of his nature; wherefore none, not even the simplest gifts from a child, should ever be suffered to be neglected. (F. Froebel, 1901, p. 77) Froebels continuous studies of the function of play in a childs life came to fruition in the concept of the Kindergarten ? a place where children instruct and educate themselves and where they develop and integrate all their abilities through play. Froebel believed that play provided the means for a childs intellectual, social, emotional and physical development. Games were not just idle time wasting, but the most important steps in the childs development, and they were to be watched by teachers as clues to how the child is developing. It is through play that the child learns the use of his limbs, of all his bodily organs, and with this use gains health and strength. Through play he comes to know the external world, the physical qualities of the objects which surround him, their motions, action, and reaction upon each other, and the relation of these phenomena to himself, ? a knowledge that forms the basis of that which will be his permanent stock for life. (H. Bowen, 1907, p. 101) However, Froebel didnt think that the play of young children should be unprompted at all times. For him the skill of adults was in knowing how and when to intervene, how to support and extend childrens play to help them to grasp and to try out their learning in concrete ways. (T. Bruce, 1997, p. 23) To stimulate learning through well-directed play Froebel designed a series of instructional materials, which he called gifts and occupations.

Monotremes and Electroreception :: Monotremes and Electroreception

Abstract Through their evolution, monotremes have developed several characteristics that make them unique from most other mammals. The focus of this paper lies on the electroreceptive capabilities of monotremes. Electroreception of monotremes is partially comparable to that in fish. The bill of the platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, and the beaks of the echidnas, Tachyglossus aculeatus and Zaglossus bruijni, all contain three types of receptors: push-rod mechanoreceptors, serous gland electroreceptors, and mucous gland electroreceptors. The information collected by these receptors is sent to the somatosensory cortex. The platypus, whose electroreceptive system is more complex than that of the echidna, uses electroreception to capture prey and is the only mammal know to so. (It is not yet known if the echidna uses electroreception to capture prey.) Introduction Monotremes have fascinated scientists since their discovery in 1799 (Moyal 4). The isolation of monotremes in Australia has allowed monotremes to evolve several unique characteristics. One newly discovered mystery of these animals is their electroreceptive capability. This discovery brings up many questions. How did monotremes evolve this elaborate sensory system? What do these electroreceptors look like, and how do they function? How do monotremes perceive this "sixth sense?" This paper will attempt to address these questions. Monotreme Diversity Order Monotremata is split into two families and three species. Ornithorhynchus anatinus, commonly called the platypus, can be found in eastern Australian rivers and creeks from Queensland all the way down the coast and across the Bass Strait into Tasmania (Moyal 18). The platypus is not a large animal. Males, which can weigh 2.35 kg and reach .56 m in length, are larger than the females (Dawson 9-10). The platypus swims with its mouth, ears, and eyes shut (Dawson 10). O. anatinus sifts the bottom for food, which is mainly non-insect invertebrates, crustaceans, worms, some vertebrates, and benthic larvae of various insects (Dawson 10). The two other surviving species of monotremes are Tachyglossus aculeatus, the short-beaked echidna, and Zaglossus bruijni, the long-beaked echidna. Echidnas range throughout Australia and New Guinea as well as islands adjacent to both land masses (Collins 17). Both species have characteristic modified hairs that function as spines (Dawson 10-12). T. aculeatus is a stocky animal (3-5kg) with a small head and pointed snout (Dawson 10-11). Z. bruijni is larger than T. aculeatus (~10kg) and has a downward curving snout (Dawson 11-12). The snouts and tongues of T. aculeatus and Z. bruijni are ideal for diets of termites, ants, and earthworms (Dawson 10-12).

Pdhpe Factors Affecting Performance

HSC Core 2: Factors Affecting Performance Chapter 5: How does training affect performance? Energy systems * alactacid system (ATP/PC) * lactic acid system * aerobic system Energy Systems The human body requires energy for its organs to function, internal processes to take place and to power muscular contractions for movement * Energy in the human body is stored in the chemical bonds that join atoms and is released when needed * The transformation of food, chemical energy, into energy that the muscles can use, mechanical energy, is the role of energy systems * Chemical energy is energy stored in bonds between atoms * Mechanical energy is motion or movement energy * Energy provided by food is measured in kilojoules (kJ) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a high energy compound that stores and transfers energy to body cells * The ATP compound consists of a large molecule call adenosine and three smaller molecules called phosphate, each phosphate is held together by high energy bonds * When the last or terminal phosphate is detached, the energy stored in this bond becomes available and is transferred to the cells * Energy from ATP allows the fibres in muscles to contract, enabling movement * Once the phosphate molecule has detached it is referred to as Adenosine diphosphate * Resynthesis is the process of restoring ATP to its former state The three systems that make ATP available are: * The alactacid system (ATP/PC) * The lactic acid system (glycolytic system) * The aerobic system (oxygen system) * The alactacid and lactic acid systems are anaerobic pathways as they do not use oxygen for the resynthensis of ATP * The aerobic system uses oxygen for the resynthesis of ATP and is oxygen dependent * Although the energy systems are examined in isolation, they function together, the predominant energy system is the one being most utilised at that point in time Alactacid system (ATP/PC) ATP supplies within the body are only large enough to enable one explosive muscular contr action and lasts 1-2 seconds * Further muscular contraction relies on creatine phosphate breaking down, which provides energy for the phosphate to combine with the adenosine diphosphate to once again form adenosine triphosphate * Creatine phosphate (CP) is an energy rich compound that serves as an alternative energy source for muscular contraction * CP supplies are exhausted in 10-12 seconds and takes only 2 minutes to be fully restored in the presence of oxygen * We have about 90 grams of ATP stored and about 120 grams of CP stored * There are no fatiguing by-products of this system, however heat is produced Lactic acid system Glycogen is the storage form of glucose and is used for fuel when blood glucose levels decline * Glycolysis is the process of using glycogen or glucose as fuel * Anaerobic glycolysis is a process where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy * Lactic acid is produced because insufficient oxygen results in the partial breakdown of glu cose, providing quick but limited ATP production, as well as the by-product lactic acid * As sufficient oxygen is not available during intense exercise, lactic acid levels rise and continue to rise as intensity increases * The fuel of the lactic acid system is carbohydrate in the form of glucose in the blood and stored glycogen * It is the dominant system used for intense activity performed between 30 seconds and 2/3 minutes * Excessively high levels of lactic acid prevent the muscle fibres from contracting and result in a rapid deterioration in performance * Lactate is processed in the mitochondria in the muscle cells, most is converted to carbon dioxide and water and some is converted to fuel * The lactate threshold is the point at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the blood * Lactic acid diffuses from the muscle and into the bloodstream taking between 30 minutes and an hour * Metabolism is the sum f all chemical processes within cells that transform substances into energy * A mole is the gram-molecular weight of a substance Aerobic system * Aerobic metabolism is the breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce energy (ATP) * Glucose, fat and sometimes protein are used * As glycogen supplies are exhausted, fat becomes the dominant energy source * Fatigue occurs because fat requires more oxygen for metabolism than carbohydrate * It is the dominant energy system for exercise from about 2 minutes onwards * By products produced are carbon dioxide and water * To recover, it may take days to restore glycogen reserves depending on intensity and duration * E. g. triathlon, marathon, 1km swim, 10km run Types of training and training methods aerobic, e. g. continuous, fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit * anaerobic, e. g. anaerobic interval * flexibility, e. g. static, ballistic, PNF, dynamic * strength training, e. g. free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic Types of training and training methods The four types of training are: * Aerobic training * Anae robic training * Flexibility training * Strength training Aerobic training Uses the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply Training types include: * Continuous training * Fartlek training * Aerobic interval training * Circuit training Continuous training: * Involves sustained effort for over 20 minutes e. g. jogging, cycling and erobics * Heart rate must be within the target zone of 65%-85% max heart rate to enable physiological adaptations to take place * Long, slow distance training focuses on distance rather than speed Fartlek training: * In fartlek training, participants vary their speed and the terrain on which they are working, engaging both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems * Fartlek training is a combination of interval and continuous training because of its use of variations in speed and intensity * Intensity is varied through the use of bursts of speed, running up and down hills, group running with changing leadership and changing terrain types * Fartlek tra ining is particularly beneficial for games players who are frequently changing intensity e. g. rugby, basketball and soccer Aerobic interval training: Aerobic interval training involves alternating sessions of work and recovery * The short rest period does not allow enough time for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system Circuit training: * Circuit training requires participants to move from one ‘station’ to another, performing specified exercises at each until they complete the circuit * Can either work aerobic or anaerobic system depending on intensity and duration * Participants aim to complete the circuit in the shortest possible time Anaerobic training * Anaerobic training uses high intensity work coupled with limited recovery to develop the anaerobic energy systems * Generally lasts less than 2 minutes and is of a high intensity * Develops greater tolerance for the lactic acid created Short anaerobic training lasts less than 25 seconds and de velops the ATP/PC system, medium anaerobic training lasts from 25 seconds to one minute and develops the lactic acid system and long anaerobic training lasts one to two minutes and develops lactic acid / aerobic systems Anaerobic interval: * Is sprint training over short distances using maximal effort with rests Flexibility training * Flexibility is the range through which joints and body parts are able to move * Flexibility is essential for prevention of injury, muscular relaxation, decreasing soreness and tightness following exercise and increased range of movement, maximising performance * Flexibility is affected by factors such as age, sex, temperature, exercise frequency and specificity * The four common types of stretching are static, dynamic, ballistic and PNF Static stretching: During static stretching the muscle is slowly and smoothly stretched to a position of no discomfort which is held for about 30 seconds * Static stretching is safe and should be used extensively in the rehabilitation of injury and cool-down phase of training Ballistic stretching: * Ballistic stretching involves repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra stretch * This form of stretching activates the stretch reflex which is an involuntary muscle contraction that prevents fibre damage if muscles are being lengthened beyond their normal range * Ballistic stretching should only be used by advanced athletes and even then should follow a thorough warm-up and another form of stretching due to the ability of the force and momentum of the movement to be potentially harmful Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching: PNF stretching involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance provided by a partner * It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the muscle in a safe environment, can be used as a warm up, cool down or in rehabilitation * The progressive cycle involves stretching the muscle group using a static stretch, isometrically contracting the mu scle in the stretched position against the resistance of the partner for about 10 seconds, relaxing in the lengthened position for about 5 seconds, then repeating the static stretch and isometric contraction Dynamic stretching: * Dynamic stretching, commonly used in warm ups due to its attempt to imitate the movements of the game, uses speed and momentum with movements experienced in a game to increase flexibility * Dynamic stretching is continuous but the end position is not held Strength training Strength training is a form of training where the muscular contraction is resisted by calculated loads, thereby building the strength of the muscle * Strength is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force against a resistance * Muscle hypertrophy is a term that refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells * Strength training programs can be used for building strength, developing power, developing muscular endurance, injury rehabilitation and ge neral health benefits * There are many ways of creating resistance or an opposing force including free weights, weight machines, elastic bands and hydraulic resistance * Isotonic programs involves raising/lowering and pulling / pushing against a resistance to contract and lengthen muscle fibres * Isometric programs involve applying a resistance and using exercises in which the muscle length does not change * Repetitions are performed quickly to increase power and slowly to increase strength Free weights: Used to develop all muscles in a group at the same time * Use of barbells, dumbbells and hand weights * Most resistance is encountered when initiating the movement * Good technique is required to avoid injury * Include squat, bench press, bicep curl, calf raise, upright row and sit ups with weight Fixed / Weight machines: * Resistance is provided by stacked weights which can be adjusted by changing pin placements * Weight machines are particularly beneficial for isolating specific m uscles for development e. g. pec machine * There is less chance of injury than free weights as tracks restrict the way each movement can be performed Resistance bands (elastic): The bands are anchored by an immovable object or part of the body, and are stretched, creating a resistance * Most of the resistance is experienced at the end of the movement because this is where the elastic material is under the greatest tension * Is a cheap and portable form of resistance training Hydraulic resistance: * Resistance is felt through the entire movement and also with the corresponding movement to return it to its starting point * Greatest resistance is felt when performing movements at higher speeds Principles of training * progressive overload * specificity * reversibility * variety * training thresholds * warm up and cool down Principles of training * Effective training requires the implementation of a number of important principles Progressive overload The overload principle implies that gains in fitness or adaptations occur only when the training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur * Training produces certain physiological changes that allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity * These adaptations will not take place if the load or resistance is either too small or too big * A resistance that is too high results in the onset of fatigue as well as possible injury and the discontinuation of the activity * Progressive overload in aerobic training results in increased cardiac output and increased oxygen uptake * The application of it to strength training will result in muscle hypertrophy which is directly related to an increase in strength * In endurance programs the load increases need to be small and the adaptations take place slowly * Fastest gains are made in flexibility, then in strength Specificity * The specificity principle states that the greatest gains are made when activity in the training pr ogram resembles the movements in the game or activity * This principle is particularly important when considering the development of energy systems, muscle groups and components of fitness * Metabolic specificity refers to identifying the energy system or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training procedures Reversibility * The effects of training programs are reversible * This is referred to as the detraining effect Gains in aerobic fitness are gradually lost if training ceases, in strength programs losses are experienced quicker and even quicker in flexibility programs * If big gains have been made during training, greater losses will follow when training stops Variety * Repetition without variation can lead to boredom, injury and the overuse of individual muscles * General endurance, strength and power can be developed using a variety of techniques including swimming, plyometrics and resistance programs to supplement training * Plyometrics refers to a special range of exercises in which a muscle is lengthened using an eccentric contraction, followed by a rapid concentric contraction Training thresholds For improvement to occur we must work at a level of intensity that causes adaptations to take place * The magnitude of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold level at which we work * The aerobic threshold refers to a level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training effect, is approximately 65 – 70% of MHR * The aerobic training zone is the level of intensity lying between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds * The anaerobic threshold or lactate inflection point is characterised by lactic acid accumulation and fatigue * The principle can be applied to resistance training, with high reps being used to develop muscular endurance and high resistance and low reps being used to develop strength Warm-up and cool-down * The warm up reduces the risk of injury, increases jo int mobility and muscle length, increases body temperature, mentally prepares the athlete for training, stimulates the cardiorespiratory system * The warm up should last for a minimum of 10 minutes, lasting up to 40 minutes where explosive movements such as sprinting are required * The warm up should include general aerobic activity e. g. ogging, specific flexibility exercises, callisthenics which are repetitive movements performed on the spot such as push ups and star jumps and also skill rehearsal * The cool down minimises muscle stiffness and soreness, decrease body temperature slowly and disperses and metabolises lactic acid concentration * The cool down should include aerobic work of a decreasing intensity and stretching of muscle groups used Physiological adaptations in response to training * resting heart rate * stroke volume and cardiac output * oxygen uptake and lung capacity * haemoglobin level * muscle hypertrophy * effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres Physiological a daptations in response to training In response to training, the body makes adaptations or adjustments to the level of stress imposed on it * Although progressive improvements will be seen throughout a training program, it usually takes about 12 weeks to realise the entire benefits * Training will cause adaptations to a number of capacities, including resting heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output, oxygen uptake and lung capacity, haemoglobin levels, muscle hypertrophy and fast and slow twitch muscle fibres Resting heart rate * Is the number of heart beats per minute while the body is at rest * The average untrained male has a resting heart rate of 70 to 75 BPM * Training can lower this to 30 – 40 BPM * Training can reduce RHR by about one BPM each week for the first few months of training * Low resting heart rates reflects larger cardiac hypertrophy which allows for a greater stroke volume Stroke volume * Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricl e of he heart during a contraction, measured in mL / beat * Stroke volume is notably higher at maximal exercise following an endurance training program * This occurs because training causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during the diastole phase than it does in an untrained heart * There is also more blood in circulation following training due to an increase in blood plasma volume, meaning that more blood is able to enter the ventricle * Blood volume can increase by half a litre after only 8 days of endurance training * The increased oxygen available to the working muscles results in improved performance Cardiac output * Cardiac Output (Q) is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute, determined by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume * Untrained individuals may have a Q of 15 – 20 litres per minute, whereas trained athletes Q can range from 20 – 40 litres per minute due to a large increase in stroke volume * Q is generally regarded as maximum output when given Oxygen uptake Oxygen uptake is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered * The most significant improvements in response to aerobic training are in oxygen uptake * As we begin to exercise the mitochondria in the cells use more oxygen in the provision of energy * Maximal oxygen uptake, or VO2 max, is regarded as the best indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance because it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and use at that level of work * A high VO2 max indicates a superior oxygen delivery system * Measurements are expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per minute (mL/kg/min) * Average VO2 max levels are about 35 mL/kg/min and can be increased up to very high levels of even 80 or 90 mL/kg/min * A 15-20% increase in oxygen uptake is typical for the average inactive person who applies the FITT principle for a six-month period * Increases in oxygen uptake and VO2 max come from an increase in mitochondria numbers and their size as well as a possible increase due to increase in blood volume Lung capacity * Lung capacity is the amount of air that the lungs can hold * Total lung capacity is about 6000mL is males and slightly less in females * Lung capacity changes little with training, however it does cause some increase at maximal levels of exercise due to lower levels of residual volume Haemoglobin level Haemoglobin is the substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body, it is contained in the red blood cells of the body * Each red blood cell contains about 250 million haemoglobin molecules * The average individual has about 14 grams of haemoglobin per 100 mL of blood * Most oxygen in the blood is transported by the haemoglobin in the red blood cells * They absorb oxygen at the lungs very quickly and carry this to the working muscles + organs * Haemoglobin levels increase roughly 20% as a result of training predominantly due to an increase in blo od volume as this increases oxygen-carrying capacity * Haemoglobin levels are also increased through altitude training as well as consuming a high iron diet Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy is an increase in the size of a muscle or the cross-sectional area of the muscle as well as an increase in the size of muscle cells * Hypertrophy is induced by training programs that stimulate activity in muscle fibres causing them to grow * Without stimulation, muscle fibres can reduce in size, known as muscular atrophy which is a wasting away or decrease in size * The growth in the size of the muscle is a direct result from an increase in actin and myosin filament which produce muscle action, myofibrils which are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle and connective tissue which surrounds and supports the muscle * Muscle hypertrophy can occur in 4 – 6 weeks * Training cannot change the type of muscle fibre, only the cross sectional area * Hypertrophy is more easily achieved in males due to a higher concentration of testosterone Effect on fast and slow twitch muscle fibres * The two types of muscle fibres are slow-twitch or type 1 muscle fibres (red fibres) which contract slowly and for long periods of time, and fast witch or type 2 muscle fibres (white fibres) which reach peak tension quickly and are used for explosive movements * Most individuals have approximately even numbers of red and white fibres, while some individuals genetically have higher proportions of one type or the other * The bulk of the work is performed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity * Aerobic training causes hypertrophy of ST muscle fibres, an increase in the number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibres which improves gaseous exchange, increases number and size of mitochondria which produce ATP, increases Myoglobin content which transports oxygen from the cell membrane to the mitochondria and level of oxidative enzymes increases * There are two types of fast twitch fibres, FTa which can use both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and FTb which uses only anaerobic metabolism * Training intensity can alter the relative proportions of subtypes in FT muscle fibres * Anaerobic training causes an increase in the efficiency and supply of ATP / PC, an increase in glycolytic enzymes, hypertrophy of FT muscle fibres and an increase in lactic acid tolerance Chapter 6: Psychology and performance * Research continues to suggest that there is significant potential to improve performance through mental training Motivation * positive and negative * intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal * Motivation is a force that can be manipulated to help an athlete achieve their full potential * Increasing the level of motivation in athletes can be achieved through recognising individual effort, supporting belief in one’s ability, instilling a good wo rk ethic and providing positive reinforcement and encouragement * The level of motivation we are able to achieve is affected by self-determination, parental pressure, response to support of others, money and the challenge Positive motivation * Positive motivation occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by revious reinforcing behaviours * The athlete is conditioned to perform in expectation of the reward * Positive motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement and / or reinforcement by others such as a coach, family, friends or spectators * Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation and also more sustainable Negative motivation * Negative motivation is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations * Negative motivation can cause a player to not take risks, be indecisive and lack creativity * While negative motivation can work on an irregular basis, in the long term it can destr oy confidence, initiative and belief in oneself Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity and they enjoy learning and performing the movements * Intrinsic motivation is the preferred type of motivation because personal reward and self-satisfaction are much stronger driving forces than anything imposed from outside * Results in a very high level of concentration where the individual is completely absorbed in the task Extrinsic motivation * Extrinsic or external motivation is motivation that comes from sources outside a person, such as a coach or parent * Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product or what can be gained * Is seen in forms such as praise, material rewards and financial remuneration * Intrinsic motivation is more sustainable Anxiety and arousal * trait and state anxiety * sources of stress * optimum arousal Anxiety and Arousal * Anxiety is predominantly a p sychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening * Any sporting contest can give rise to anxiety Anxiety can also be entrenched in expectations, especially if one feels that they cannot be fulfilled * Arousal is a physiological process characterised by increased heart rate, tightness of muscles, increased blood supply and higher respiration rate Trait anxiety * Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual * It varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress State anxiety * State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to specific fear or danger * A certain level of anxiety might be considered beneficial in sports where aggression is a natural outlet e. g. ugby * However it can hinder performance in fine motor skilled sports e. g. archery Sources of st ress * Stress is the non-specific response of the body to a demand placed on it * It can be felt by participants in all sports * We feel stress building within us, produced by adrenaline which readies the body for action * Stress is characterised by increased blood supply, more oxygen to the lungs, increased glucose production, increased sweat production and tightened muscles * Factors that produce stress are called stressors and can develop from, in sporting situations, personal pressure, competition pressure and social pressure Optimum arousal Arousal is a physiological response and can be experienced prior to and during a performance * While anxiety is primarily a psychological state, arousal is essentially a physiological process * Arousal level can either facilitate or hinder the execution of specific skills * The individual performs a skill most successfully when the level of arousal is optimal for that particular task and that individual * Low arousal is optimal for tasks inv olving few muscle groups e. g. darts, as opposed to high arousal which is optimal for activities involving large body movements e. g. running Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety * concentration/attention skills (focusing) * mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery * relaxation techniques * goal-settingPsychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety * Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement * Athletes are able to use strategies including concentration / attention skills, mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery, relaxation techniques and goal-setting to ensure their mental and physical energy is channelled in the right direction Concentration / attention skills (focusing) * Concentration is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can focus on doing, as opposed to thinking about doing * When an indi vidual focuses on the task or activity, their thoughts relate to execution * Concentration can be improved through training that emphasises the process rather than the outcome * Through developing skills that block out distractions, using routines, avoiding negative thoughts and utilising self-talk an athlete is able to gain greater concentration Mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery Mental rehearsal is the commonly used technique of picturing the performance or skill before executing it * It has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the acquisition and building of motor skills * Mental rehearsal requires vivid, realistic pictures at performance speed in the mind and a sense of experiencing the movement * Mental rehearsal can improve performance as it focuses the mind on the correct execution of the skill, provides a clear idea of what has to be done and heightens concentration Relaxation techniques * Relaxation techniques are a series of techniques t hat seek to control the body’s response to stress * Relaxation techniques may assist the athlete in control of arousal * Techniques commonly used by athletes include progressive muscular relaxation, mental relaxation, self-hypnosis, meditation and centred breathing Goal-setting Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards and can relate to either performance or behaviour * They provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training over extended periods * The types of goals include short-term goals which can be achieved in a limited period of time, long-term goals which can be achieved only over a long period of time, behavioural goals which relate to improved behavioural expectations and performance goals which pertain to the athlete’s desired level of success Chapter 7: Nutrition, recovery strategies and performance Nutritional considerations * pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading * during performance * post-performance Nutritional consideration s Programs designed to improve performance must be supported by solid nutritional practices * The two most important nutritional considerations are the roles of carbohydrates and hydration * The type of food consumed prior to competition directly affects the quantity of energy available * Hydration involves supplying sufficient water to the body’s cells * Fluid is important because it is the body’s medium for cooling heated muscles and assists in temperature regulation by transporting heat to the outside of the body * A deficiency in fuel or fluid supply contributes to a substandard performance and can place the health of the athlete at risk Pre-performance (carbohydrate loading) * Food consumed prior to activity is useful only if digested and its energy and nutrients are made available to where they are required in the body * Foods high in fat, protein and fibre such as meats require longer periods to digest * Athletes are advised to eat mostly complex carbs e. g. pas ta, cereal, fruits and bread * Food ingested before a performance has the potential to cause discomfort * The appropriate quantity of food elates to the type of competition * A normal meal 3 – 4 hours before competition is usually appropriate, as the time period prior to competition becomes shorter, food intake should be in the form of snacks and liquid preparations * People competing in competition or events should drink adequate fluid in the preceding days, especially in the hours prior * Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to maximise the body’s storage of glycogen in preparation for a high-intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes – can improve performance by about 2% – 3% and delay fatigue * Muscle saturation of glycogen is best achieved through a balanced diet high in carbohydrates especially complex carbs and tapering of training for 2 to 4 days before competition * About 6 – 8 cups of water is needed per day, which is about 1. 5 – 2L of water, this amount is needed even before you take into account other factors such as heavy exercise, a dry or hot environment or being overweight. During performance Endurance events, particularly in hot and possibly humid conditions, can have a significant impact on the body’s fuel and fluid supplies * The need for carbohydrate and electrolyte replacement depends on a number of factors including intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type and individual sweat rates * Electrolytes are salts and minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, that are important for many body functions such as chemical breakdown and nerve conduction, electrolytes are lost through perspiration during exercise * It is suggested that 200 – 300 mL of fluid be taken in every 15-20 minutes during exercise * It is especially important to be well hydrated when you are physically active as a loss of one or more per cent of your body weight due to sweating can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness and fatigue * Hydration is essential for heat dispersion, temperature regulation, chemical reactions producing energy, waste disposal through sweating and to allow blood to flow to major organs which is essential in sports performance * When you have lost an excessive amount of bodily fluid and are dehydrated you may experience thirst, discomfort, headaches, cramps, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, constipation and fatigue * When you are dehydrated, your body still tries to maintain its cardiac output; the amount of blood that is pumped around the body by the heart, by compensating for the loss of fluid by increasing the heart rate and constricting the blood vessels to try to maintain blood pressure and blood flow to organs * Dehydration is an excessive loss of water Post-performance A post-performance nutritional plan aims to return the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible * Proactive recovery means that refuelling and rehydr ation begins immediately and continues for 8-12 hours following the performance * Depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores need to be replaced immediately through an intake of food and drink high in carbohydrates with a high glycaemic index * The glycaemic index is a ranking system for carbohydrates based on how they affect blood sugar level * Rehydration needs to take place to replace fluids and electrolytes lost during the event * Active rest is encouraged as it enhances the manufacture of red blood cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress-related movements Supplementation * vitamins/minerals * protein * caffeine * creatine products Supplementation Dietary supplementation is found in many forms, including vitamins and minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products * Supplements may be of little value if the diet is already well balanced in terms of nutritional requirements Vitamins * Vitamins are essential to maintaining bodily functions * Vitamin s are required in only very small quantities in the body * A balanced diet is important because food is the main source of vitamins * The body is unable to manufacture vitamins * Vitamin supplementation should not be a response to a desire for improved performance, but rather arise out of special needs e. g. ill health * The intake of excessive quantities of vitamins A and D may contribute to muscle and joint pain and headaches due to the body’s ability to store them Minerals Minerals are essential for the body to function properly, but do not provide energy * They are found in the body and are necessary for it to function adequately * Iron and calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes * Athletes should look to dietary sources rather than supplementation to gain adequate minerals Protein * Protein’s primary importance to the body is its structural role in holding the cells together and in the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue * High levels of protein are needed by strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and adolescents undergoing a growth spurt * However changes in the dietary balance are the preferred method of supplementation Caffeine Caffeine does appear to improve cognitive processes, such as alertness * Caffeine does not appear to enhance performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting * Diuretic properties of caffeine suggest that it should be avoided as it may contribute to dehydration * A diuretic is a drug that increases the amount of fluid (water and urine) passing from the body * The only evidence of caffeine enhancing performance is that it may assist specific metabolic processes, enhancing endurance performance * An ergogenic aid is a substance or practice that improves or is believed to improve physical performance Creatine products The body has two sources of creatine, production by body cells and food intake, particularly from meat * It is important in making energy available to sustain short duration explosive activity such as weight-lifting and sprinting * Creatine cannot be stored in the body * Muscle hypertrophy is more easily achieved when training is assisted by creatine supplementation, possibly related to the increase in weight it causes * There is little, if any benefit of supplementation to enhancing performance Recovery strategies * physiological strategies, e. g. cool down, hydration * neural strategies, e. g. hydrotherapy, massage * tissue damage strategies, e. g. cryotherapy * psychological strategies, e. g. relaxation Recovery strategies Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume normal training and competition within the time span of the training program * Active rest is still regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery * Rest allows both physiological and psychological revitalisation to take its course * During rest, muscles repair and rebuild while energy and fluid levels are res tored to pre-event levels * Short-term recovery requires activities such as cool-down following training, together with low intensity exercise to promote soft tissue repair and disperse lactic acid * Recovery strategies can be categorised as physiological, neural, tissue damage or psychological Physiological strategies (cool down, nutritional plan – hydration + fuel recovery) * Physiological strategies need to focus on the removal of metabolic by-products and a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy-rich nutrients * An effective cool-down is the recommended manner for removal of metabolic by-products * The purpose of a cool-down following exercise is to gradually reduce heart rate and metabolism to the pre-exercise state while also assisting in the removal of waste products including lactic acid, which contributes to muscle stiffness and soreness * It is also designed to restore a number of other elevated body functions, such as ventilation rate, blood distributio n and adrenaline levels back to normal * The cool-down should consist of 5-10 minutes of walking / jogging / slow swimming, with the aim of returning the body to pre-exercise temperature * Static stretching is also important * Vigorous or sustained exercise that is not concluded with a cool-down may result in blood pooling, causing dizziness * A nutritional plan encompassing fluid recovery and fuel recovery is paramount * Drinking 600mL of water for every half kilogram of weight lost during exercise is ecommended * During the first 30 minutes to two hours following exercise the muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment and this is the best time for fuel recovery * A high carbohydrate diet is recommended during exercise recovery Neural strategies (hydrotherapy, massage) * Neural strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise * Strenuous exercise impacts on the central nervous system an d this may contribute to fatigue * Hydrotherapy involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery * Water provides support for movements, and eliminates jarring and straining movements that are associated with land drills * Typical hydrotherapy methods involve use of steam rooms, spas, underwater massage and heated swimming pools * Sports massage focuses on body and mental relaxation It is important as exercise induced tension can cause stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscles * Post-event massage claims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assist in eliminating toxic by-products, promote flexibility and prepare the athlete for the next training session Tissue damage strategies (cryotherapy) * Cryotherapy involves the use of cooling to treat injury or quicken recovery from performances, particularly those that involve collisions and / or sustained intensity * Ice is the most used form of cryotherapy because of its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory process, preventing the build-up of waste Psychological strategies (relaxation) Use of psychological strategies represents an important phase in emotional and possibly spiritual recovery * Mind relaxing activities such as reading, listening to music, and watching movies or television are helpful and used by most athletes * The benefits of other more specialised psychological techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation, flotation, meditation, visualisation, centred breathing and positive self-talk are realised if practised frequently Chapter 8: Skill and performance * Skill is the ability to consistently perform movements with control and precision * The acquisition of skill is a gradual development process that requires that our cognitive (thinking) processes work with our physical abilities to learn how to perform movements that previously were unfamiliar to us * Acquisition is gaining possession of something Stages of skill acquisition * cognitive * associative * autonomous Stages of skill acquisition The stages of skill acquisition can be categorised into the cognitive or planning stage, the associative or practice stage and the autonomous or automatic stage Cognitive stage * Cognitive refers to mental processing of information, thinking and understanding * The fundamental requirement here is that the athlete gains an understanding of the task required * The learner may experience error, awkwardness and some disorientation * Positive learning should be reinforced and encouraged Associative stage * Associative means connecting or linking ideas * The associative stage is identified by a specific emphasis on practice * Errors still occur, but are smaller and less frequent than in the cognitive stage * A sense of fluency or smoothness develops as the learner’s kinaesthesis improves Autonomous stage Autonomous means being in full control of actions so they become automatic * Temporal patterning is developed, where their move ment has a characteristic fluency as the sub-routines sequence and blend in aesthetically pleasing motions Characteristics of the learner, e. g. personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience, ability Characteristics of the learner * The speed with which learners are able to acquire certain motor skills depends on a number of factors, of which most are inherent features * Some characteristics of learners that affect the rate of learning are personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability Personality Personality refers to an individual’s characteristic way of behaving * From a motor learning point of view, certain aspects of personality tend to be more favourable with certain learning environments * Attributes affecting learning include cooperativeness, willingness to listen, determination, enthusiasm, dedication, level of motivation, aggressiveness and willingness to take risks and learn * Traits are characteristics or observable features of a person Here dity * Heredity refers to genetic characteristics inherited from our parents * Important hereditary characteristics are the relative percentage of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibres, somatotype, gender, height and conceptual ability * Somatotype is a person’s body type or shape, with ectomorphic referring to linearity, mesmorphic referring to muscularity and endomorphic referring to roundness Confidence * Self-confidence is a firm belief in one’s own ability * Confidence develops from experiencing success in learning situations * Confidence leads to self-belief Prior experience It is often easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired * Transfer of learning is an important reality in the acquisition of new skills * Lateral transfer is the transfer from one task to another similar task e. g. forehand in ping pong and tennis * Vertical transfer is mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something much more diffi cult e. g. kicking using a kickboard and freestyle Ability * Ability is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine * Ability incorporates a range of factors, such as sense acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence * Acuity is sharpness The learning environment nature of the skill (open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self-paced, externally paced) * the performance elements (decision-making, strategic and tactical development) * practice method (massed, distributed, whole, part) * feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance) The learning environment * The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practised, information from coaches and even the influence of surrounding weather conditions The nature of skill * Skills are commonly classified as open or closed, gross motor or fine motor, discret e, serial or continuous, and self-paced or externally paced Open and closed skills Open skills occur in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently changing * Closed skills occur in an environment that is stable and predictable * The closed environment is much more conducive to skill learning because the learner is not distracted by other factors * Skills can be placed along a continuum from closed to open Gross motor and fine motor skills * Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups for execution * Fine motor skills require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement Discrete, serial and continuous skills * Skills can be classified as discrete, serial or continuous according to where they begin and end * Discrete skills have a distinct beginning and end that can be identified e. g. a forward role * Serial skills involve a equence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill e. g. a layup in basketball * Continuous skills have no distinct beginning or end e. g. swimming Self-paced and externally paced skills * Self-paced skills are movements for which the performer determines the timing and speed of execution e. g. bowling in cricket * Externally paced skills are movements for which an external source controls the timing e. g. batting in cricket Performance elements * The performance elements are decision making, strategic development and tactical development * The game-centred approach aims to focus on the whole game and all components Decision making Productive decision making is best achieved through observation, questioning, whole, part, whole approach, variation and creativity Strategic and tactic development * Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time and what to do * Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent * Strategic and tactical development is built on the principles of technical efficiency, understanding and skilful execution Practice methods * The learning environment is further affected by the practice methods or training systems and routines designed to teach particular skills Massed and distributed practice Distributed practice (or spaced practice) involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals * Distributed practice works best when the performer lacks interest, the task is difficult, motivation is low or the task causes fatigue * Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals * Massed practice works best when performers are highly motivated and fresh Whole and part practice * The whole practice method is applied when a skill is practised in its entirety * The part practice method is applied when a skill is broken into smaller components and each discrete sub-skill is practised separately * Whole-part-whole practice is a c ombination of both methods Feedback Feedback is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance * The many types of feedback include internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance Internal (or intrinsic) and external (or extrinsic) feedback * Internal feedback occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill and is received through the body’s proprioceptive mechanisms or senses * External feedback is all feedback other than that which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill * Augmented feedback, a type of external feedback, is supplementary information that is not given at the time that the skill is performed e. g. video analysis Concurrent (or continuous) and delayed feedback * Concurrent feedback is received during the performance of a skill and it is relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism * Delayed feedback is received after the skill has been executed e. g. waiting for the result of a basketball shot Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of a movement, it is always external and may come from a coach or judges for example * Knowledge of performance is information about the pattern of the movement during execution, it gives feedback on the quality of the execution of the skill Assessment of skill and performance * characteristics of skilled performers, e. g. kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique * objective and subjective performance measures * validity and reliability of tests * personal versus prescribed judging criteria Assessment of skill and performance Characteristics of skilled performers * The movements of the skilled performer have certain observable qualities including kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and technique Kinaesthetic sense * Kinaesthesis (or kinaesthetic sense) refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments Anticipation Skilled performers are better able to predict what may happen in specific situations Consistency * The skilled performer is able to perform the desired movement repeatedly Technique * Technique is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular task Objective and subjective performance methods * Measurement is the process of using numeric information to assess a particular physical ability * Subjective observation refers to a judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or opinions rather than a measurement system * Objectivity is the extent to which a measure or test is independent of the observer Validity and reliability of tests Validity is the honesty of a test – that is, the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure * The validity of a test is enhanced by accuracy in prediction and ensuring test items contain the component being validated * Reliability refers to the degree of consiste ncy of a test – that is, the ability of the test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions Personal versus prescribed judging criteria * Criteria refer to the standards / qualities used for judging the value of a performance * Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance * Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity * Appraisal is a judgement about the quality of something or somebody * The use of prescribed criteria seeks to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework